‘Learning to read, write and gain word knowledge is a developmental process, and there are many ways to describe the phases of development’ (Hill 2012, p. 5).
Children begin reading from a young age and generally start to read visually first, taking cues from illustrations or symbols to gain meaning. As their reading develops they may begin to draw on the starting letter and its sound to determine what word it could be.
Hill (2012) describes phases of development as four categorical stages for a students reading development. These are: Beginning (0-3 years); Early emergent (3-5 years); Emergent (P-Kindergarten); Early (K-Year 1); Transitional (Years 1-2); and Extending (Years 2-4) (Hill 2012, p. 5). Dividing the phases of learning into these categorical stages enables students to map progress of student learning, plan for future learning and envisage the distance or the zone of proximal development between what children can do and more sophisticated understandings’ (Hill 2012, p. 5).
Beginning
Handles a book
Turns the pages
Looks at pictures
Listens to book read aloud , joins in with book reading
Early-emergent
Chooses favourite books, joins in with books read aloud, memorises rhymes and perdictable books
Turns the pages uses left to right directionally
Emergent
Begins to grasp concept of words
Left to right, top to bottom directionally
Reads word-by-word matching spoken word to print. Can retell a simple story
Early
May still read word-by-word matching each printed word with a spoken word
Uses multiple sources of information and self corrects if the reading doesn't make sense
Adjusts reading style to the type of text. Retells the text in sequence. Increasing fluency of reading and reads vocalising aloud
Transitional
Reads with more fluency in phrases rather than word-by-word
Reads silently
Can retell main ideas and summarise what has been read
Uses a variety of strategies to comprehend texts
Extending
Changes style of reading to suit the text type
Careful close reading for directions and research reports and more fluent reading for narrative and descriptions
Use a range of reading strategies to identify new words and comprehend texts
A child’s reading progression can be found through assessment of their reading fluency, comprehension and VELS progression. It is important that an appropriate text to their level is chosen when assessing, to insure an accurate result.
Identifying suitable texts:
‘Selection needs to be a blend of topics that are important to children and departmental guidelines. Broad topics that are relevant to the lives of children work best’ (Hill 2012, p. 429). Suggested topics include (Hill 2012, p. 429):
Children’s homes, families and food The local community’s people and business Important local events and current affairs Nearby landmarks, rivers, hills and forests Natural phenomena like weather, water, wind and air, plans and animals
‘Broad topics like these help children make sense of their own personal experiences and life around them’.
Each member in the group conducted a reading interview with their student to assess previous reading knowledge, opinions of reading, desire to read, what and where they like to read. This interview can help teachers assess the child’s interest and therefore assist in the selection of appropriate texts to maximise the students reading progress.
An example of a survey conducted with a student I assessed is shown below in figure 1.
Figure 1:
These results indicate Child X is an independent reader. He loves reading, particularly at home, enjoys ‘funny and interesting’ books, and understood that reading enables access to information. He successfully identified strategies to manage difficult words and used the title to identify a book’s suitability.
Another great way to assist in selection of appropriate texts for early years learners is through understanding a child’s Funds of Knowledge (see page on Early Years learners and Funds of Knowledge).
Assessing fluency:
Reading fluency is essential for a child’s reading comprehension (Hill 2012, pp. 191-192). Children will likely experience difficulties with understanding the information read, if they read slowly and with long pauses (Hill 2012, p. 191). This can result in an unenjoyably reading experience, impacting on the child’s attitude towards reading, negatively (Hill 2012, p. 191). During fluent reading a child is, for the most part, expressive (Hill 2012, p. 191). Poor attention to syntax, punctuation and pauses may cause decreased enjoyment (Hill 2012, p. 191).
Reading fluency describes the child’s ability to read a text as a whole rather than word by word. Eg. The dog barked at me when I walked in.
A reader lacking fluency would read a list of words, e.g. The. Dog. barked. at. me. when. I. walked. in.
Often readers find familiar text easier to read with fluency.
Figure 2:
Using the Reading Fluency Rubric (Hill 2012, p. 194) (see figure 2), each of the members in the group were able to assess the reading fluency of an early years learner in years 1 or 2. After comparing all the results, it can be seen that there is a wide variation in reading fluency.
The learners reading fluency was assessed by use of phonology, syntactic awareness, expressive interpretation, punctuation and pragmatics.
Two group members analysed their students reading to be at a mid-range level 2. they found that although the students reading of words was great, their use of punctuation was still not developed. They skipped over full stops and commas and barely took breaths when he turned the page. They read softly and in four to five word sentences. Words that he was familiar with were easy, but he had to sound out words that they did not know or know the meaning of. They showed an inconsistent evidence of syntax awareness as some words were said incorrectly and not corrected even when it did not make sense in the story.. Punctuation was rarely used. Full stops and commas were skipped most of the times. There were no pauses in sentences and dialog between characters became part of the narrative.
Three group members found their students were mainly at a level 3, with some areas in between level 3 and 4, placing them in the transitional stage of the phases of development. The text was read with expression and meaningful phrases, with some word-by-word slow-downs, e.g. the word enormous was sounded out and then read successfully. The reading was generally fluent, excelling in syntactic awareness, demonstrated by the child emphasising sentences that ended in exclamation marks.The students demonstrated knowledge of sentence structure, pausing for full stops and reading in phrases rather than words. The students were able to read with appropriate expression, just like their teachers at school.
One member of the group found the child they intervened demonstrated evidence of Level 4 reading. He consistently read larger phrases, and demonstrated appropriate phonology through correct intonation, stress and timing. Concurrent with level 4 expressive interpretation, he displayed appropriate pragmatics through differing vocal tones, for example, high pitch tones for ladies screaming.He displayed level 3 syntactic awareness, understanding word order and identifying and re-correcting without prompts when omission of a word caused sentences to sound incomplete. He understood and read longer, more complex sentences with adjectival clauses. He attended to punctuation, responding well to commas, however sometimes forgetting to pause at full stops. He responded appropriately to ellipsis, knowing they lead readers on.
Assessing comprehension:
Reading comprehension is a combination of extracting and constructing meaning from what has been read, concurrently (Hill 2012, pp. 215-218). This involves being able to derive meaning from the actual words, whilst figuring out how print functions to depict words (Hill 2012, pp. 215-218). Reading comprehension also comprises of the child constructing meanings by combining information already known with new ideas (Hill 2012, pp.215-218). Asking a selection of Literal, Interpretive and Inferential questions can assess comprehension.
Comprehension questions include ‘literal’, requiring recall of information from the text, ‘interpretive’, which involve reading between the lines for answers in illustrations, and ‘inferential’, which prompt exploration and understanding beyond the story (Hill 2012, p. 199).
In my interview, the child demonstrated clear comprehension of the text. Comprehension questions shown below (figure 2) explored the child’s literal, interpretative and inferential thinking. Sam demonstrated transitional stages of literacy development as he recalls main ideas and summarizes what has been read.
Reading comprehension- Mrs. McGee’s Coconut
Table 1a: Literal questions
Question
Response
1. What was the name of the lady who bought the coconut?
Mrs McGee
2. What did Mrs McGee purchase?
A Coconut
3. What did the animals have to eat?
The coconut
4. What did Mrs McGee buy at the end?
walnuts
Table 1b: Interpretive questions
Question
Response
1. What was Mrs McGee trying to do to the coconut throughout the story?
break it in half
2. Where did the coconut end up? / what was the last place?
In Kashmir. In the animals stomach
3. Is the coconut hard or soft?
Hard, I think it is hard because it bounced everywhere and it didn’t break.
4. Does Mrs McGee like doing things in an ordinary way?
No, because she hit it with a golf club and then it went everywhere. The ordinary way would have been to get a knife or a chainsaw.
Table 1c: Inferential Questions
Question
Response
1. What do you think the story might be suggesting about the Walnuts at the end?
The walnuts did the same thing as the coconut.
2. Do you think Mrs McGee was good at opening things?
No, because she couldn’t open the coconut.
3. What did you learn from this story?
Not to hit a coconut with a golf club.
4. What do you think might happen with the walnuts in the next story?
The same thing as the coconut. It might land in a different Island. I don’t think Mrs. McGee learnt her lesson from the coconut, I think it is obvious that she would do something silly again.
He easily identified answers to literal questions such as the name of the lady who bought the coconut. His ability to deduce deeper meanings to answer interpretive questions such as ‘where did the coconut end up?’ demonstrated high level comprehensive skill. This was clear through his answer ‘In the animals stomach’, instead of the surface answer ‘the island Kashmir with the animals’, suggested by the illustrations. Sam’s answers in question 4, ‘the same thing as the coconut’ and ‘I don’t think Mrs. McGee learnt her lesson … and it is obvious that she would do something silly again’, demonstrated ability to extrapolate future events.
VELS levels demonstrate another way to demonstrate phases of development. In the early years these levels range from level 0.5 in prep increasing in quarters to approximately level 2.5 for grade 3.
Progression point 1.25
Progression point 1.5
Progression point 1.75
At 1.25, the work of a student progressing towards the standard at Level 2 demonstrates, for example:
At 1.5, the work of a student progressing towards the standard at Level 2 demonstrates, for example:
At 1.75, the work of a student progressing towards the standard at Level 2 demonstrates, for example:
Reading
Reading
Reading
naming of all uppercase and lowercase letters in the alphabet
identification of common sounds for letters
independent reading of simple print and electronic texts with moderate accuracy and fluency
accurate reading of high-frequency words
retelling of what they have read using the text as a prompt
prediction of what a text will be about, using textual features and some known words
understanding of differences between real and imaginative texts
segmentation and blending of letters in words of one or two syllables
use of sentence context, predictable structures and initial letters when attempting to read unfamiliar words
accurate and independent reading of print and electronic texts with high-frequency words
self-correction, on recognition that their own reading does not make sense
inclusion of main ideas in retelling what they have read
prediction of what might happen next in a story read independently
recognition of a wide range of letters and sounds, and blends in words of more than one syllable
use of strategies for working out the meaning of unfamiliar words in context; for example, sounding out, rereading, using cues from illustrations
self-correction, and use of punctuation to contribute to meaning when reading aloud; for example, recognition of quotation marks to identify a speaker’s words
ordered retelling of main ideas from a text they have read
response to ideas in short print and electronic literary texts
Each member of the group observed a student reading, totaling six children who’s reading skills ranged in VELS level from 1.25 to 2.
Using the Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS), two group members assessed their students as level 1.25 working towards level 1.75. Their students had the ability to read and recognise high frequency words and were able to sound out words to complete reading the sentence when in trouble. The students were able to retell parts of the story, however the recount was not necessarily in chronological order. The students were not always aware of grammar, rearing through commas and full stops.
Two other members found their students at VELS level 1.75 working towards level 2. They demonstrated They demonstrated familiarity with a wide range of letters and sounds, self correction and appropriate response to punctuation when reading aloud, such as change of tone when reading speech, and pausing for breathe at full stops. The students were able to predict what might happen next and retells stories in their own words.
Another member found her student at Level 2 VELS. The child appears to be at progression point 1.75.
Another member found her student is working towards and is very close to level 3 in reading. She has shown evidence of currently sitting at VELS level 2.75
It can be concluded that now after having conducted various interviews assessing early years learners reading ability, we as pre-service teachers have a heightened understanding of what texts are appropriate to different standards of learning, the rate at which children's reading develops and what signs to look for when determining a student's reading comprehension and fluency. This of course a valuable resource in our future careers and classrooms.
‘Learning to read, write and gain word knowledge is a developmental process, and there are many ways to describe the phases of development’ (Hill 2012, p. 5).
Children begin reading from a young age and generally start to read visually first, taking cues from illustrations or symbols to gain meaning. As their reading develops they may begin to draw on the starting letter and its sound to determine what word it could be.
Hill (2012) describes phases of development as four categorical stages for a students reading development. These are: Beginning (0-3 years); Early emergent (3-5 years); Emergent (P-Kindergarten); Early (K-Year 1); Transitional (Years 1-2); and Extending (Years 2-4) (Hill 2012, p. 5). Dividing the phases of learning into these categorical stages enables students to map progress of student learning, plan for future learning and envisage the distance or the zone of proximal development between what children can do and more sophisticated understandings’ (Hill 2012, p. 5).
A child’s reading progression can be found through assessment of their reading fluency, comprehension and VELS progression. It is important that an appropriate text to their level is chosen when assessing, to insure an accurate result.
Identifying suitable texts:
‘Selection needs to be a blend of topics that are important to children and departmental guidelines. Broad topics that are relevant to the lives of children work best’ (Hill 2012, p. 429). Suggested topics include (Hill 2012, p. 429):
‘Broad topics like these help children make sense of their own personal experiences and life around them’.
Each member in the group conducted a reading interview with their student to assess previous reading knowledge, opinions of reading, desire to read, what and where they like to read. This interview can help teachers assess the child’s interest and therefore assist in the selection of appropriate texts to maximise the students reading progress.
An example of a survey conducted with a student I assessed is shown below in figure 1.
Figure 1:
These results indicate Child X is an independent reader. He loves reading, particularly at home, enjoys ‘funny and interesting’ books, and understood that reading enables access to information. He successfully identified strategies to manage difficult words and used the title to identify a book’s suitability.
Another great way to assist in selection of appropriate texts for early years learners is through understanding a child’s Funds of Knowledge (see page on Early Years learners and Funds of Knowledge).
Assessing fluency:
Reading fluency describes the child’s ability to read a text as a whole rather than word by word. Eg. The dog barked at me when I walked in.
A reader lacking fluency would read a list of words,
e.g. The. Dog. barked. at. me. when. I. walked. in.
Often readers find familiar text easier to read with fluency.
Figure 2:
Using the Reading Fluency Rubric (Hill 2012, p. 194) (see figure 2), each of the members in the group were able to assess the reading fluency of an early years learner in years 1 or 2. After comparing all the results, it can be seen that there is a wide variation in reading fluency.
The learners reading fluency was assessed by use of phonology, syntactic awareness, expressive interpretation, punctuation and pragmatics.
Two group members analysed their students reading to be at a mid-range level 2. they found that although the students reading of words was great, their use of punctuation was still not developed. They skipped over full stops and commas and barely took breaths when he turned the page. They read softly and in four to five word sentences. Words that he was familiar with were easy, but he had to sound out words that they did not know or know the meaning of. They showed an inconsistent evidence of syntax awareness as some words were said incorrectly and not corrected even when it did not make sense in the story.. Punctuation was rarely used. Full stops and commas were skipped most of the times. There were no pauses in sentences and dialog between characters became part of the narrative.
Three group members found their students were mainly at a level 3, with some areas in between level 3 and 4, placing them in the transitional stage of the phases of development. The text was read with expression and meaningful phrases, with some word-by-word slow-downs, e.g. the word enormous was sounded out and then read successfully. The reading was generally fluent, excelling in syntactic awareness, demonstrated by the child emphasising sentences that ended in exclamation marks.The students demonstrated knowledge of sentence structure, pausing for full stops and reading in phrases rather than words. The students were able to read with appropriate expression, just like their teachers at school.
One member of the group found the child they intervened demonstrated evidence of Level 4 reading. He consistently read larger phrases, and demonstrated appropriate phonology through correct intonation, stress and timing. Concurrent with level 4 expressive interpretation, he displayed appropriate pragmatics through differing vocal tones, for example, high pitch tones for ladies screaming.He displayed level 3 syntactic awareness, understanding word order and identifying and re-correcting without prompts when omission of a word caused sentences to sound incomplete. He understood and read longer, more complex sentences with adjectival clauses. He attended to punctuation, responding well to commas, however sometimes forgetting to pause at full stops. He responded appropriately to ellipsis, knowing they lead readers on.
Assessing comprehension:
Reading comprehension is a combination of extracting and constructing meaning from what has been read, concurrently (Hill 2012, pp. 215-218). This involves being able to derive meaning from the actual words, whilst figuring out how print functions to depict words (Hill 2012, pp. 215-218). Reading comprehension also comprises of the child constructing meanings by combining information already known with new ideas (Hill 2012, pp.215-218). Asking a selection of Literal, Interpretive and Inferential questions can assess comprehension.
Comprehension questions include ‘literal’, requiring recall of information from the text, ‘interpretive’, which involve reading between the lines for answers in illustrations, and ‘inferential’, which prompt exploration and understanding beyond the story (Hill 2012, p. 199).
In my interview, the child demonstrated clear comprehension of the text. Comprehension questions shown below (figure 2) explored the child’s literal, interpretative and inferential thinking. Sam demonstrated transitional stages of literacy development as he recalls main ideas and summarizes what has been read.
Reading comprehension- Mrs. McGee’s Coconut
Table 1a: Literal questions
Table 1b: Interpretive questions
Table 1c: Inferential Questions
He easily identified answers to literal questions such as the name of the lady who bought the coconut. His ability to deduce deeper meanings to answer interpretive questions such as ‘where did the coconut end up?’ demonstrated high level comprehensive skill. This was clear through his answer ‘In the animals stomach’, instead of the surface answer ‘the island Kashmir with the animals’, suggested by the illustrations. Sam’s answers in question 4, ‘the same thing as the coconut’ and ‘I don’t think Mrs. McGee learnt her lesson … and it is obvious that she would do something silly again’, demonstrated ability to extrapolate future events.
VELS levels demonstrate another way to demonstrate phases of development. In the early years these levels range from level 0.5 in prep increasing in quarters to approximately level 2.5 for grade 3.
Each member of the group observed a student reading, totaling six children who’s reading skills ranged in VELS level from 1.25 to 2.
Using the Victorian Essential Learning Standards (VELS), two group members assessed their students as level 1.25 working towards level 1.75. Their students had the ability to read and recognise high frequency words and were able to sound out words to complete reading the sentence when in trouble. The students were able to retell parts of the story, however the recount was not necessarily in chronological order. The students were not always aware of grammar, rearing through commas and full stops.
Two other members found their students at VELS level 1.75 working towards level 2. They demonstrated
They demonstrated familiarity with a wide range of letters and sounds, self correction and appropriate response to punctuation when reading aloud, such as change of tone when reading speech, and pausing for breathe at full stops. The students were able to predict what might happen next and retells stories in their own words.
Another member found her student at Level 2 VELS. The child appears to be at progression point 1.75.
Another member found her student is working towards and is very close to level 3 in reading. She has shown evidence of currently sitting at VELS level 2.75
It can be concluded that now after having conducted various interviews assessing early years learners reading ability, we as pre-service teachers have a heightened understanding of what texts are appropriate to different standards of learning, the rate at which children's reading develops and what signs to look for when determining a student's reading comprehension and fluency. This of course a valuable resource in our future careers and classrooms.